At the urging of S P Korolev, OKB-1 Section 12, led by M V Melnikov, started development of an ion engine. By 1959 it would be proposed that clusters of the 7.5 kgf thrust ion engine could take the TMK-E manned Mars spacecraft on a low acceleration spiralling trajectory away from the Earth until it finally reached escape velocity and headed toward Mars. But to power even such a limited engine solar panels with a total area of 36,000 square meters would be required - clearly beyond 1959 technology. Feoktistov's solution was to turn to the use of a nuclear reactor to power the ion engine.

British-American physicist mission specialist astronaut 1987-2013. Flew in space six times. Appointed Deputy Associate Administrator for Exploration Operations in 2004. 373 cumulative days in space. 6 spaceflights, 373.8 days in space. Flew to orbit on STS-45 (1992), STS-56, STS-63, STS-84, STS-103, Soyuz TMA-3.

Launched at 2037 hours EST from AMR. The flight was successful. Actual range was 61.6 nm; 400 meters left; and 0.21 nm over the intended impact point. The primary objective was to test the accuracy of the guidance system when the missile is fired in a short range trajectory at an extreme attitude to range ratio. The missile closely followed the predicted trajectory for a successful flight which terminated 70 meters beyond and 360 meters to the Left of the expected impact point at 61.553 nm range. The short range trajectory was programmed with an extreme altitude-to-range ratio so the guidance system would be subjected to the most difficult short range expected in future tactical application. Missed aimpoint by 400 m.

NACA established "Round Three" Steering Committee to study feasiblity of a hypersonic boost-glide research airplane. "Round Three" was considered as the third major flight research program which started with the X-series of rocket-propelled supersonic research airplanes, and which considered the X-15 research airplane as the second major program. The boost-glide program eventually became known as DynaSoar.

With the Navaho stuck on the pad, and the Atlas ICBM nearing first flight, the Air Force began cutting back funds to the Navaho. Advertising for construction of G-38 production missile support facilities at the Cape was pulled, and the program was rescheduled to accommodate a 32% funding cutback in 1958, with construction limited to 16 G-26 missiles and the first G-38 flight delayed from June 1958 to February 1959.

In the spring of 1957 Korolev organised project section 9, with Tikhonravov at its chief, to design new spacecraft. By April they had completed a research plan to build a piloted spacecraft and an unmanned lunar probe, using the R-7 as the basis for the launch vehicle.

There were ten attempts to launch Navaho G-26 vehicle number 4 since the first static firing test on 3 December 1956 had been unsuccessful. The vehicle was plagued with problems with the engines and APU, resulting in engine burn-through, engine non-ignition, as well as other unrelated problems - ramjet engine fires, destruct package failures. The vehicle was pulsed from the launch order.

The first Jupiter flight was fired at 1651 hours EST from AMR. The missile achieved a 48,000 foot altitude. Flight terminated at 7.4 seconds because of missile break-up. Failure was attributed to overheating in the tail section. The trajectory to this point was as predicted.

The first missile shipped directly from the Chrysler Factory to the test site to be flight tested was launched at 0312 hours EST from AMR The flight was successful. Actual range was 138.178 nm; 2.2 nm under; and 1250 meters left of the intended impact point. The missile functioned properly until 182 seconds when an unexplainable pitch deviation caused a slow tilting of the missile top section. The cut-off function at 120 seconds and the separation function at 135 seconds, after flight zero time, were both satisfactory. Missed aimpoint by 4,183 m.

As a result of guidance from the Secretary of Defense as to desired level of effort, the Atomic Energy Commission reduced its program on nuclear rocket propulsion to a single laboratory effort, phasing out work at the University of California Radiation Laboratory and concentrating AEC development efforts at Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory.

Headquarters ARDC redesignated Headquarters, 1st Air Division, as Headquarters, 1st Missile Division. Headquarters, 392d Air Base Squadron, was reconstituted as Headquarters, 392d Air Base Group, at Camp Cooke, California, effective 15 April 1957. Both units were assigned to WDD.

G-26 number two / booster 6 lifted off after a 9 hour 48 minute countdown with nearly five hours of holds, on the first attempt after two successful static firings. However failure of a launch lanyard meant the kerosene start-pod on the booster remained attached. This sheared off at 4500 m, causing extensive booster damage. Thrust decayed. The cruise stage separated at Mach 1.3 at 28,300 feet, but this was below ramjet ignition speed. However the pilot on the ground was able to assume radio control of the vehicle, and flew it in a glide over the ocean, even demonstrating landing gear deployment before it pancaked into the water.

American test pilot astronaut 1992-2004. Grew up in Thousand Oaks, California. Left NASA for a position with ATK Thiokol, promoting shuttle-derived vehicles for use as the CEV launch vehicle. 4 spaceflights, 47.4 days in space. Flew to orbit on STS-75 (1996), STS-82, STS-101, STS-105.

Launched at 2022 hours EST from AMR. The flight was successful from the standpoint of missions accomplished, with cut-off time 112 seconds and separation time 126 seconds after range zero time. Impact point was 220 meters short and 320 meters to the right, a radial miss distance of 390 meters, primary objective was to test the accuracy of the guidance system when the missile was fired in a short range trajectory at an extreme altitude to range ratio. Missed aimpoint by 390 m.

Russian engineer cosmonaut 1989-1999. Engineer, first Russian woman to fly in space for other than propaganda reasons. Was married to astronaut Valeriy Ryumin. Civilian Engineer, Energia NPO 2 spaceflights, 178.4 days in space. Flew to orbit on Soyuz TM-20 (1994), STS-84.

The U.S. Army Ballistic Missile Agency, Redstone Arsenal, Ala., began studies of a large clustered-engine booster to generate 1.5 million pounds of thrust, as one of a related group of space vehicles. During 1957-1958, approximately 50,000 man-hours were expended in this effort.

U.S.-IGY scientific satellite equipment, including a radio transmitter and instruments for measuring temperature, pressure, cosmic rays, and meteoric dust encounters, was tested above earth for the first time, as a rocket containing this equipment was fired by the Navy to a 126-mile altitude.

Headquarters, 1st Missile Division, was established at Los Angeles, California, and Headquarters, 392d ABG was established at Camp Cooke, Lompoc, California. These initial ballistic missile initial operational capability (IOC) and training units were assigned to WDD.

The second Thor flight test missile launched on the Atlantic Missile Range (AMR) was successful until the Range Safety Officer (RSO) accidentally destroyed the missile. Douglas Thor IRBM (XSM-75) was launched at Cape Canaveral, Fla., destroyed by range safety officer. The missile was actually on course throughout its flight. The console wiring error led the range safety officer to believe it was headed inland rather than out to sea, so he hit the destruct button.

Vehicle 4 was still not ready for the first Broomstick flight, so vehicle 5 was substituted. It took five attempts before a 15.6 second static test cleared the booster for launch on 29 March. 8 hours and 42 minutes of hold stretched the five-hour countdown out into the evening. The booster ignited, rose 1.3 m, then shut down. The vehicle fell back onto the pad, exploding. Cause was a 15-second timer that was supposed to shut the engines down 15 seconds after the vehicle hold-downs released if a lanyard had not been pulled free of the vehicle as it rose off the ground. The 15 seconds had been reached before the lanyard pulled free, but by then the vehicle had risen off the pad. This made 15 attempts to launch a Navaho, with only two booster ignitions, both resulting in loss of the vehicle. The Northrop crews at the Cape dubbed their competitor the "Never-Go Navaho" to counter jibes directed at them about the "Snark-infested waters" off the launch area. The Air Force was not amused, and had a tiger-team review of the G-26 on a system-basis which recommended several procedures. Meanwhile G-38 launch plans were further delayed over internal USAF wrangles over launch facility construction.

The second three-stage re-entry missile, was launched at 0255 hours EST from AMR to test the thermal behaviour of a scaled-down version of the Jupiter nose cone during re-entry. The separated nose cone, which weighed 314 pounds, should have reached a nominal range of 1,212 nm. The missile began. to pitch up at 134 seconds, and impact was 420 nm short of the intended impact point. The composite missile consisted of three stages. The first stage was an elongated Redstone using alcohol and liquid oxygen as propellant. The second and third stages were made up of clusters of 11 and 3 scaled-down Sergeant solid propellant rockets, respectively. The nose cone was not recovered; however, instrument contact with the nose cone through re-entry indicated that the ablative-type heat protection for warheads was successful. Nose Cone Recovery Test

Army Jupiter IRBM was fired 1,500 miles, limit of its designed range, and to an altitude of 250-300 miles, the first successful launching of an IRBM. Fired from AMR at 1308 hours EST to test the range capability and performance of rocket engine and control system. Although the missile was 253 nm short of its estimated 1,400 nm impact point, this was the first successful flight of the Jupiter. All phases of the test were successful during this first firing of the IRBM in the western world

The first Atlas Series A flight test missile (4A) had to be destroyed shortly after launch from Cape Canaveral due to a booster engine shutdown and loss of thrust. From a technical standpoint, however, this first booster-only launch successfully demonstrated the launching mechanism, structural integrity of the airframe, subsystems performance, and operating procedures for launch crew personnel. First test flight of prototype WS-107A Atlas was detonated by command signal at 10,000 feet following a failure in the booster fuel system. The 23-second flight was considered a partial success.

The missile launched from the repaired LC-9 on the third attempt. At T+42 seconds, Mach 1.63, and 7,000 m altitude, a fire occurred in the engine compartment after a failure of a regenerative cooling valve to the gas generator. The turbopump shut down, and one engine went out. Nevertheless the vehicle continued, first on one engine, then coasting, to 12,000 m altitude, and the booster separated successfully. But the cruise stage was below ramjet ignition velocity. Again ground control could bring the cruise stage under control as a glider, flying it to an impact 87 km downrange

Launched at 0609 hours EST from AMR to test performance of the inertial guidance system, angle-of-attack meters, separation of explosive screws, and impact and radar fusing systems. Range instrumentation difficulties and deteriorating weather delayed the firing from the initially scheduled time of 0230 hours EST. The flight was successful. Actual range was 135.425 nm; 0.42 nm over; and 389 meters left of the intended impact point. Missed aimpoint by 785 m.

These included development of a three stage version of R-7, development of satellite guidance and control systems of the precision required for photography from orbit, satellite control equipment, ELINT sensors, guidance systems, film cassette return systems, and tracking systems for recovery of the re-entry vehicle with the film cassette.

Launched at 0130 hours EST from AMR. The primary test objective was to test the accuracy of the guidance system. The flight was successful. Actual range was 130.125 nm; 0.15 nm over; and 285 meters left of the intended impact point. All missions were successfully accomplished. The missile followed the predicted trajectory very closely. Survey of the impact crater indicated a miss distance of 50 meters over and 284 meters to the left of the predicted impact point, giving a radial miss distance of 389.5 meters. Missed aimpoint by 289 m.

The supersonic intercontinental cruise missile had been made obsolete by the Atlas ICBM. 4,705 employees were laid off the day the termination notice was received via an announcement over the public address system to "stop what you are doing, proceed to the nearest exit, and deposit your badge in the bin indicated". By the end of the month the total laid off at North American alone amounted to 15 ,600 employees. However engineering staff was kept on to launch the five completed G-26 missiles, at a total cost of $4.9 million.

At the time the program was cancelled full-range G-38 missiles were in fabrication with first flight test planned by the end of 1958. The engines, missile frame manufacturing techniques, inertial and stellar navigation equipment, and telemetry/guidance techniques developed for Navaho established the technical basis for many subsequent US rocket developments.

Launched at 2317 hours EST from AMR. The flight was successful. Actual range was 126.227 nm; 147 meters under; and 182 meters left of the intended impact point. The primary test objective was to flight test warhead and fuse functioning as a system. A survey of the warhead impact point: indicated a miss distance of 147 meters short, 182 meters to the left of the predicted impact point, or a radial miss distance of 234 meters. Missed aimpoint by 235 m.

AFBMD presented the Air Force Scientific Advisory Board's Ad Hoc Committee with a summary of follow-on ballistic missile weapon systems and advanced space programs that could be undertaken. Included among the programs was the proposed development of high-thrust space vehicles for orbital and lunar flights.

Air Force Ballistic Missile Division (Western Development Division was redesignated Air Force Ballistic Missile Division, 1 Jun 1957) presented to the Scientific Advisory Board Ad Hoc Committee, meeting at Rand Corporation, a summary of follow on ballistic missile weapon systems and advanced space programs which it was prepared to undertake. These programs included development of high thrust space vehicles capable of earth orbital and lunar flights. (AFBMD Presentation to the Scientific Advisory Board Ad Hoc Committee to Study Advanced Weapons Technology and Environment, 29 Jul 57, prep by AFBMD.)

The National Security Council approved a Defense Department recommendation to reorient and cut back the ballistic missile programs. Atlas retained its priority, but the Titan program was reduced to second priority. The Thor and Jupiter IRBM programs were to be combined and evaluated by a joint Office of the Secretary of Defense-Air Force-Army Committee that would choose between them for future development.

Objective was limited to test of operation of first stage boosters. The AVD Engine Cutoff System activated on ignition due to destruction of an OT-155 propellant valve in one of the booster engines. The missile remained on the pad. The stage boosters were dismounted, checked, and reassembled.

First Nose Cone Recovery. Army-JPL Jupiter-C fired a scale-model nose cone 1,200 miles down range from AMR with a summit altitude of 600 miles. Recovery the next day of aerodynamic nose cone using ablation, resolved reentry heating problem for Jupiter missile. Nose cone was shown to the Nation on TV by President Eisenhower on November 7.

Fired from AMR at 0159 hours EST, impacted at the predicted range. This success proved conclusively that the planned ablative-type heat protection for Jupiter warheads was satisfactory. The missile was a three-stage configuration--the first stage an elongated Redstone missile, the second and third stages 11 and 3 six-inch scaled Sergeant rockets, respectively. The one-third scale Jupiter nose cone was attached to the final stage with scheme for separation provided. The nose cone travelled to a 1,168 nm range, reached a velocity of 4,004 m/sec, and experienced a total heat input at stagnation point at 95% of that for the full scale nose cone at 1,500 nm. Naval units recovered the scaled nose cone according to plan.

In an attempt to reduce program costs, Defense Secretary Charles E. Wilson curtailed the planned production rates for Atlas, Titan, and Thor missiles to four missile each per month for the ICBMs. He also requested a study of the effects of a monthly production rate of 2-2-2 for the three programs.

In the summer of 1957 physicist Bob Brownlee attempted to 'contain' the blast effects of an atomic explosion from a device placed at the bottom of a 500 foot vertical shaft in the Nevada desert. A four-inch-thick steel plate weighing 'several hundred pounds' is placed over the hole (diameter not specified). This blew off as expected in the blast and was seen in films to depart the area at six times escape velocity . Brownlee never publicly challenged the Soviet's claim (to having launched the 1st Earth satellite.

After a 15 hour 18 minute countdown G-26 number four finally left the pad. The boost phase was completed successfully; but then a guidance system malfunction prevented the cruise stage from separating from the booster until an altitude of 25 km was reached. However the autopilot successfully overcome drastic pitch oscillations created by the lofted trajectory, and the ramjets were successfully ignited. The stage cruised at Mach 2.93 for 280 km. However then the vehicle began drifting off course. The ground pilot banked, but the fuselage screened the airflow to the left ramjet intake, resulting in that engine flaming out. The vehicle lost speed and altitude, and the right engine flamed out a minute later. The missile was ordered into a terminal dive, impacting 425 km downrange.

Secretary of Defense Charles E. Wilson directed that the ICBM program be limited to a maximum monthly production of four Atlas and two Titan missiles rather than the "4-4" program ordered on 9 August. With other areas also reduced, the Titan program became essentially a research and development effort.

Manhigh II reached a record altitude of 101,516 feet (30,950 m) with Major David Simons aboard on 19 and 20 August. Including the pilot and scientific equipment, the total weight of the Manhigh II gondola was 747 kg. At maximum altitude, the ballon expanded to a diameter of 60 m with a volume in excess of 85,000 cubic m.

Cuxhaven saw its first use as the 'Gateway to Space'. The DRG (German Rocket Society)'s 'Rocket Flight Day' started out with 7 firings of the 'oilspray' rocket to ranges of 100 to 300 m. The terrible weather served to demonstrate their function admirably. This was followed by a launch to 100 to 2000 m altitude of several small model rockets. This was followed by delta-winged rocket built by Koschmieder, which reached 3000 m and was recovered by parachute. Next was a prototype 20 kg meteorological rocket using a new solid propellant developed by Deutsche Dynamit AG. This produced 1500 kgf and reached Mach 1.5. The rocket rose to 4000 m but the recovery parachute deployed early and the meteorological instruments were not recovered. Finally a test of the first of Ernst Mohr's big rockets was planned. The rocket had 50 kg of propellant, produced 5 tonnes thrust, and was to have reached Mach 1.5 at burnout and an altitude of 20,000 m. However the launch was cancelled due to bad weather.

The fourth Jupiter was fired from AMR at 1602 hours EST over IRBM range and was the second successful flight of the series. The range error was 27.5 nm with a 36.5 nm lateral error. Range was predicted for 146 nm. LOX was cut off at 170 seconds. All flight missions were fulfilled satisfactorily. Separation occurred 5 seconds after burnout, as programmed, This was the first test of separation of body from thrust unit.

Objective was limited to test of operation of first stage boosters. After launch, there was a premature release of the jet vanes. The missile cleared the launch tower, then immediately arced over and crashed with a huge explosion within sight of the launch pad.

The Air Force Ballistic Missile Committee reviewed the revised AFBMD FY 1958 program that resulted from OSD decisions and directives of August that cut the program from $1,135 billion to $944 million. A 4-4-2 monthly production rate was approved for Atlas, Titan, and Thor missiles, and program slippages were accepted in response to Secretary Wilson's guidance of 9 August. The program was later submitted to OSD/BMC and approved on 5 October 1957.

Launched at: 2141 hours EST from AMR. The flight was unsuccessful, The missile impacted 14.77 nm from the launch pad. Mechanical failure of the guidance tilt program caused the missile to assume a very steep trajectory which resulted La. a short range flight. Missed aimpoint by 111,000 m.

The booster worked well, the cruise stage separated at 23.5 km altitude. The ramjets ignited, and the cruise stage accelerated to Mach 3.5. After 15 minutes, the missile began drifting off-course, and ground control took over and banked the missile. One of the ramjets flamed out, and the missile was commanded into a terminal dive and impacted 930 km downrange.

First fully successful test flight of Thor intermediate range ballistic missile. (AF Ballistic Missiles Program Status Report.) After four failures, the fifth Thor flight test missile (#105) successfully demonstrated all on-board systems. The engine operated 137 seconds to automatic shutdown, and missile impacted 1,300 nautical miles down range from Cape Canaveral. Complete USAF Thor IRBM first successfully launched from Cape Canaveral. Dummy Warhead sent to 1800 km range.

The second Atlas flight test missile (6A) was destroyed 32 seconds into the flight because of an engine shutdown. Atlas was again destroyed by command signal at three minutes into flight following a failure in the booster fuel system. The 50-second active flight was considered a partial success.

Thirty-six Rockoons (balloon-launched rockets) were launched from Navy icebreaker, U.S.S. Glacier, in Atlantic, Pacific, and Antartic areas ranging from 75 N. to 72 S. latitude, as part of the U.S.-IGY scientific program headed by James A. Van Allen and Lawrence J. Cahill of the State University of Iowa (SUI). These were the first known upper atmosphere rocket soundings in the Antartctic area.

Launched from IGY Rockoon Launch Site 2, Atlantic Ocean - Latitude: 0.83 N, Longitude:0.99 W.

Launched at 1429 hours EST from AMR. The flight was successful, the impact point was 445 metres long and 452 meters to the right of the predicted impact point, giving a radial miss distance of. 634 meters. This was the first flight test of the NAA A-6 engine with a sea level thrust of 78,000 pounds. Missed aimpoint by 572 m.

First artificial satellite; transmitted signals for 21 days. Launching of first ever artificial satellite of the Earth; physical study of the atmosphere; remained in orbit until January 4, 1958. This event began the space race by galvanizing interest and action on the part of the American public to support an active role in space research, technology, and exploration.

Secretary of Defense Charles E. Wilson approved the revised AFBMD ballistic missile program submitted to the Air Force Ballistic Missile Committee on 12 September. A total of $991 million was approved; $437 million for Atlas, $335 million for Titan, and $148 million for Thor. AFBMD's original FY58 budget submission of October 1956 had requested $1,672 billion for the ballistic missile programs.

President Eisenhower in a White House press release congratulated the Soviet scientists on SPUTNIK I. He gave a brief history of the development of the U.S.-IGY satellite program and pointed to the separation of Project Vanguard from work on ballistic missiles.

The launch of Sputnik spurs immediate actions within the government to accelerate manned spacecraft work. ARDC headquarters consolidated Hywards, Brass Bell, and Robo studies into a three-step abbreviated development plan for System 464L, Dyna-Soar. On the same day a NACA Hypersonic Steering Committee met to consider the best configuration for such a vehicle. Langley's Faget pushed non-gliding ballistic capsules, another NACA group felt lifting bodies were the best solution, but the majority of participants favoured the flat-bottomed glider configuration.

The Rocket and Satellite Research Panel, established in 1946 as the V-2 Upper Atmosphere Research Panel and renamed the Upper Atmosphere Rocket Research Panel in 1948, together with the American Rocket Society proposed a national space flight program and a unified National Space Establishment. The mission of such an Establishment would be nonmilitary in nature, specifically excluding space weapons development and military operations in space. By 1959, this Establishment should have achieved an unmanned instrumented hard lunar landing and, by 1960, an unmanned instrumented lunar satellite and soft lunar landing. Manned circumnavigation of the moon with return to earth should have been accomplished by 1965 with a manned lunar landing mission taking place by 1968. Beginning in 1970, a permanent lunar base should be possible.

A 'Round 3' conference involving studies for a follow-on to the X-15 program, which subsequently led to the X-20 Dyna Soar, was held at the Ames Aeronautical Laboratory. During the course of the meeting, Alfred J. Eggers, Jr., of Ames advanced several proposals for possible manned satellite vehicle development projects.

Russian and China sign New Defense Technical Accord, whereby Russia will supply China with protoype atomic bomb and two R-2 missiles, and related technical data. Under the agreement the Soviet Union will provide to China the necessary specialists, training, and tooling for licensed production of the R-2 ballistic missile (an improved version of the V-2).

Despite the focus of worldwide interest and public acclaim on the launch of Russian satellites (Sputnik I, 4 October; Sputnik II, 3 November) many high ranking government officials attempted to belittle this Russian scientific achievement. On 9 October the White House announced that the "United States would not become engaged in a space race with other nations and that Project Vanguard would not be accelerated." Nevertheless, the Secretary of the Air Force, James H. Douglas, called upon a committee of distinguished scientists and Air Force officers headed by Dr. Edward Teller to propose a line of positive action. The committee's report, completed 22 October, contained a strong recommendation for a unified program--a recommendation which was disregarded, "in favor of a divided program that, in the opinion of many, tended to dissipate rather than concentrate the expanded effort. " (Bowen, Threshold of Space p. 13.)

The fifth Jupiter was fired from the AMR at 2007 hours EST. This was the first flight with a heat protected nose cone. The ST-90 inertial guidance stabilised platform was operated with partially closed circuits. Cut-off was effected by the guidance system at 170.37 seconds. Since fuel was not depleted, flight time was 9.5 seconds longer than had been predicted for an approximate 1,100 nm range. The range error was 10.2 nm with a 3.4 nm lateral error. The nose cone survived re-entry and impacted in the general vicinity of the predicted impact point. Again, a successful flight.

Launched at 2352 hours EST from AMR. The flight was unsuccessful. Actual range was 48 nm, whereas the predicted range wee 130.588 nm. At 68 seconds, a disturbance occurred in the lateral accelerometer and computer systems. Erroneous guidance instructions were transmitted to the control systems, causing a sharp yaw at 70 seconds. Cut-off was initiated at 98.1 seconds. One of the objectives was to indoctrinate troops for participation in the tactical portions of the countdown. Missed aimpoint by 151,000 m.

A presentation on manned orbital flight was made by Maxime A. Faget. The concept included the use of existing ballistic missiles for propulsion, solid-fuel retrorockets for reentry initiation, and a nonlifting ballistic shape for the reentering capsule. This concept was considered to be the quickest and safest approach for initial manned flights into orbit.

Council of Soviet Ministers (SM) Decree 'On termination of work on the 40 Buran intercontinental cruise missile' was issued. Buran was being prepared for its first flight when Myasishchev's project was cancelled. After successful flight tests of Lavochkin's Burya missile, the Soviet leadership did not see any need for continued development of a parallel ramjet design. Following the cancellation, Myasishchev sought approval for test of an air-launched version.

Carried dog Laika. Study of the physical processes and conditions of life in outer space. After the surprise public impact of Sputnik 1, the satellite and launch teams were called back from vacation and in one month assembled the satellite (using equipment already developed for dog sounding rocket flights). After the launch, Soviet space officials said that the spacecraft would not return and that the dog had enough food and oxygen to live for up to 10 days. Only 45 years later was it revealed that Laika overheated, panicked and died within 5 to 7 hours of launch. What turned out to be the first space crypt remained in orbit a total of 162 days, then burned up in the atmosphere on April 14, 1958.

The Air Force briefed the Armed Forces Policy Council on a reconnaissance satellite program and possible combinations of vehicles that could be used for "cold war and scientific programs. The Air Force recommended using the available intermediate range ballistic missile as a booster to hasten launching an orbital system as early as March 1958. If approved this program would require an additional six Thors and $12 million to cover additional costs. (Ltr, Co0 R. J. Nunzia.o, Asst for Spec Prog, DCS/Dev, Hq USAF, to SAFRD, 12 Nov 57, subj: Outer Space Vehicle.)

The Air Force briefed the Armed Forces Policy Council on a reconnaissance satellite program and possible combinations of vehicles that could be used for "cold war and scientific programs." The Air Force recommended using the available intermediate range ballistic missile as a booster to hasten launching an orbital system as early as March 1958. If approved this program would require an additional six Thors and $12 million to cover additional costs. (Ltr, Co0 R. J. Nunzia.o, Asst for Spec Prog, DCS/Dev, Hq USAF, to SAFRD, 12 Nov 57, subj: Outer Space Vehicle.)

President Eisenhower in major address on science and security announced that scientists had solved the problem of ballistic missile reentry and showed the nose cone of an Army Jupiter-C missile which was intact after a flight through space. He announced the creation of the office of Special Assistant to the President for Science and Technology and the appointment of James R. Killian, president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, to the new post.

Three Thor IRBM's to be diverted from the missile test program and used for an early satellite capability. In response to the nation's urgent need to demonstrate at least an early space vehicle capability it was suggested that three Thor boosters be made available from the missile test program and from these an early satellite or space capability could be obtained. Accordingly, Air Force headquarters requested Air Research and Development Command to conduct an engineering study which would " . . . provide sufficient information to this headquarters within the next 30 45 days on which a decision can be based as to the feasibility, capability and cost of such a program. " An immediate release of $100,000 enabled the command to fund preliminary design studies. (Msg, 11-033, ARDC to AFBMD, 13 Nov 57.)

Secretary of Defense Neil McElroy directed the Army to proceed with the launching of the Explorer earth satellites. This order, in effect, resumed the Orbiter project that had been eliminated from the IGY satellite planning program on September 9, 1955. Von Braun was to modify two Jupiter-C missiles (modified Redstones) and attempt to place an artificial earth satellite in orbit by March 58.

At a meeting of the NACA Subcommittee on Fluid Mechanics, it was stated that many aspects of space flight and astronautics would depend heavily on research advances in the field that had been broadly termed fluid mechanics. Research in this area involved internal and external gas flows associated with high-speed flights within the atmosphere and reentry into the atmosphere of spacecraft vehicles. The subcommittee recommended to NACA that research in these matters be intensified.

USAF requested the Department of Defense approve a crash space program using the Thor IRBM as the booster. Assistant Secretary of the Air Force for Research and Development, R. E. Horner, requested the Department of Defense approve a space program that would furnish an early demonstration of space capability and "provide important development test vehicles leading to larger reconnaissance and scientific satellites." To hasten action three Thor missiles, 114,116 and 118 ". . could be made available in a relatively short period of time with minimum interference to the IRBM program. " These boosters could be used to orbit a recoverable animal satellite prior to 1 July 1958. Thor, it was also suggested, would be a practical vehicle to furnish the Air Force satellites with specific military capabilities. (Memo, Asst SAF (R&D), R. E. Homer, to SOD, 1Z Nov 57, subj: Outer Space Vehicle.)

Headquarters USAF asked the Defense Department to approve a space program that would provide an early demonstration of space capability and a developmental test vehicle for larger satellite systems. Three Thor IRBMs could be made available for use in such development programs provided they did not interfere with the IRBM program.

Major General B. A. Schriever, Commander of Air Force Ballistic Missile Division directed preparation of a plan for a 10 15 year program leading to development of man carrying vehicle systems for space exploration. A preliminary plan for an orderly space development effort and ultimate manned flight had, in fact, already been prepared and awaited presentation to General S. E. Anderson, Commander of Air Research and Development Command. The plan envisioned manned space flight with a minimum of new development through the use of existing knowledge, experimental programs, missile-boosters, and facilities available throughout the command. (Memo, Col L. D. Ely, Dir Tech Divs, Weapon Systems, AFBMD, to Col C. H. Terhune, Dep Cmdr, Weapon Systems, AFBMD, 13 Dec 57, subj: Manned Space Flight Program; Cmdrs Reference Book, Chronology of Man in Space Effort, 23 Mar 59, prep by AFBMD.)

The booster functioned well, and the cruise stage separated at 20.4 km altitude and Mach 3.24. The ramjets ignited, but before the ground knew that, the telemetry dropped out completely due to a faulty voltage regulator on the missile. Range safety ordered the missile's self destruction at T+75 seconds.

The General Assembly of the United Nations adopted Resolution 1148 (XII), calling, in part, for "the joint study of an inspection system designed to ensure that the sending of objects through outer space shall be exclusively for peaceful and scientific purposes."

Headquarters USAF presented its revised and augmented program for ballistic missile development to the Secretary of Defense and the Armed Forces Policy Council. Nine Atlas squadrons were proposed, the first to become operational in June 1959 and the ninth in June 1963 and eight Titan squadrons, the first to be operational in March 1961 and the last in June 1963.

Mr. William A. Holaday, Special Assistant for Guided Missiles, OSD, was named Director of Guided Missiles by the newly appointed (9 October) Secretary of Defense, Neil H. McElroy. As Director of Guided Missiles, Mr. Holaday was to direct all Defense Department activities related to guided missile research, development, engineering, production, and procurement.

Air Force headquarters affirmed the necessity for the Air Force to acquire recognized competence in "astronautics and space technology." Therefore the Air Research and Development Command was instructed to prepare by 1 December 1957 an astronautics program with estimates of its funding requirements. The plan was to review those space programs already underway and make a projection of development in astronautics and space technology over the next five years. (Msg, Cmdr ARDC, to Comdr AFBMD, 20 Nov 57.)

Air Force Missile Development Center (AFMDC) was investigating vital environmental elements applicable to manned space flight. One of two technical development projects was titled, "Human Factors of Space Flight. " The investigation covered exposure to space radiation, tolerance to high g loads and weightlessness, problems of descent and recovery from space, and physical and environmental problems of sealed cabins. A second study, "Biodynamics of Human Factors for Aviation", investigated tolerance to abrupt deceleration, total pressure changes, abrupt wind blasts and aircraft crash forces. These studies were symptomatic of a renaissance of scientific interest in space research throughout the Air Research and Development Command. (Memo, Maj D. L. Carter, Dep Dir, Tech Div, Weapon Sys, AFBMD, to Col C. H. Terhune, Dep Cmdr, Weapon Sys, 19 Dec 57, subj: Meeting With Major Simons, AFMDC.)

The Rocket and Satellite Research Panel recommended the creation of a National Space Establishment in the Executive Branch of the Government. According to the proposal, activities of this agency would be under civilian leadership, and the organization would be charged with formulating and supervising a space research program. An annual budget of $1 billion for a period of 10 years was recommended.

The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics established a Special Committee on Space Technology to study and delineate problem areas that must be solved to make space flight a practical reality and to consider and recommend means for attacking these problems. Dr. H. Guyford Stever of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology was named chairman.

Over one-half of the NACA Propulsion Conference was devoted to the discussion of possible space propulsion systems. Three particular systems appeared to afford excellent choices for such purposes. These were: the chemical rocket, the nuclear rocket, and the nuclear-electric rocket. It was the considered opinion of the conference members that the chemical rocket would be quite adequate for a round trip to the moon.

Deployment of the R-5M in 1956 caused the Sixth Directorate of the Ministry of Military Forces of the USSR's First Military Subdivision, consisting of two brigades, to be formed. The need for a new arrangement for safeguarding nuclear weapons deployed with field units led to a decree replacing the Sixth Directorate with a Twelfth General Directorate of the Ministry of Defence, charged with the development, trials, deployment, and security of nuclear warheads.

Air Research and Development Command began a strong effort to orient the work of the command to meet accelerating demands of space technology. A Ballistic Missile Space Vehicle Working Group, appointed by the Commander on 18 January 1957, was convened to establish "new Research and Development Parameters for the Technical Program. " The group's work, essentially, was to predict Air Force space vehicle requirements and developments over the next 15 year time period. (Ltr, Col R. V. Dickson, Asst Dep Cmdr (R&D), to Cmdr AFBMD, 26 Nov 57, subj: Ballistic Missile/Space Vehicle Working Group.)

Fired from AMR at 2110 hours EST. Main stage, lift-off, and powered flight were normal. The missile passed through the critical dynamic pressure period and followed the prescribed trajectory until 202 seconds of flight when the engine thrust was terminated. From an analysis covering the period before thrust termination, mechanical failure of the turbo-pump stopped the flow of propellants to the combustion chamber causing a complete loss of thrust. Telemetry signals ceased at 232 seconds. The missile was at an altitude of 65,000 feet when an explosion was observed from the Test Centre above the horizon. The long range mission of this flight was not accomplished; however, other primary and secondary missions were considered successful.

President Dwight D. Eisenhower recommended to Congress the formation of an Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in a Defense Department reorganization proposal. The new agency would provide unified Defense Department direction and management of certain advanced research and development projects.

The Martin Company proposed to the Department of Defense (DOD) that a stage of the Titan intercontinental ballistic missile be combined with the Vanguard rocket to provide a launch vehicle capable of placing an instrument package into lunar orbit and, ultimately, on the lunar surface.

On 6 December 1957 an agreement was signed to license production of the R-2 to China. A huge team of Russian rocket engineers and technicians went to Beijing to set up the production line. This rocket provided the technological base for the subsequent Chinese rocket programs.

The Air Force Scientific Advisory Board Ad Hoc Committee on Space Technology recommended, because "Sputnik and the Russian ICBM capability have created a national emergency, " acceleration of specific military programs and a vigorous space program with the immediate goal of landings on the moon. (Rpt, SAB Ad Hoc Committee on Space Technology, 6 Dec 57.)

The Air Force Scientific Advisory Board Ad Hoc Committee on Space Technology recommended acceleration of specific military projects and a vigorous space program with the immediate goal of landings on the moon because "Sputnik and the Russian ICBM (intercontinental ballistic missile) capability have created a national emergency."

The basic elements of the proposal included a Titan rocket to boost a manned satellite into a 110 nautical mile earth orbit. The satellite would be a spherical capsule containing instrumentation and a life support system capable of sustaining one man for three or four days. A novel feature of the system would be development of a stainless steel cloth parachute which would lower the capsule safely through re-entry deceleration. As the air pressure increased the parachute would automatically expand to its full size and land the capsule at a survival, if bone jarring, rate of 35 feet per second. AVCO asked $500,000 for a three month study and mockup of the capsule device and estimated, as a rough guess", a total development cost of $100 million. The ballistic missile division, however, was not convinced that this was the best approach to the manned reentry problem. The division' s position was that when the Air Force identified its space goals and established specific technical requirements it would then be wiser to "ask for bids and put it (development) on an open competitive basis. " (Memo, Col L. D. Ely, to Col C. H. Terhune, 17 Dec 57, subj: AVCO Proposal for Manned Satellite.)

The Air Force created a Directorate of Astronautics to manage and coordinate astronautical research programs, including work on satellites and antimissile-missile weapons. Brigadier General Homer A. Boushey was named to head the office. Later in the month the order was rescinded by James H. Douglas, Secretary of the Air Force, who considered the creation of such a group before the activation of the Advanced Research Projects Agency to be premature.

The Army Ballistic Missile Agency completed and forwarded to higher authority the first edition of A National Integrated Missile and Space Vehicle Development Program, which had been in preparation since April 1957. Included was a "short-cut development program" for large payload capabilities, covering the clustered-engine booster of 1.5 million pounds of thrust to be operational in 1963. The total development cost of $850 million during the years 1958-1963 covered 30 research and development flights, some carrying manned and unmanned space payloads. One of six conclusions given in the document was that "Development of the large (1520 K-pounds thrust) booster is considered the key to space exploration and warfare." Later vehicles with greater thrust were also described.

Although the tempo of space technology research within recent months had been significantly accelerated by the Air Research and Development Command, a further increase was yet desirable. A plan, which would increase space research by 50 percent or more by fiscal 1959 and place management responsibility for the over-all space technology program within command headquarters, now adopted. (Ltr, Lt Gen S. E. Anderson, Cmdr ARDC, was to Cmdr AFMDC, 10 Dec 57, subj: Space Technology.)

Lieutenant General D. L. Putt, Deputy Chief of Staff Development at Air Force headquarters, announced establishment of the Directorate of Astronautics, to be headed by Brigadier General Homer A. Boushey. There was, however, an adverse Department of Defense reaction to this action. The Secretary of Defense objected to the use of the term "astronautics" and William Holaday, Defense Director of Guided Missiles, publicly stated the Air Force "wanted to grab the lime light and establish a position. " Just three days later General Putt directed that the organizational change be cancelled. (Bowen, Threshold of Space, p. 20.)

Successfully fired at 1936 hours EST from AMR. The missile followed the trajectory very closely and impacted on target. All missions were successfully accomplished. The predicted impact range was 141.895 nm. The miss distance has bean certified as 153 meters radial, 94 meters over, and 121 meters to the left of the predicted impact point. The primary objective of the rest was to flight test Hardtack adaptation kit components as passengers. Missed aimpoint by 209 m.

The Scientific Advisory Committee to the Secretary of the Air Force met at the ballistic missile division. The committee reviewed Air Force plans for advanced ballistic missile and space programs and recommended that space technology development be managed by the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division. (Early BMD-ARDC General Space Chronology, 11 Feb 59, prep by AFBMD Hist Ofc.)

The third flight test missile (12A) became the first successful Atlas Series A missile flight. A short-range, booster-only flight was completed with the booster impacting 575 miles down range from Cape Canaveral. During the flight, all systems performed satisfactorily. First successful test firing of USAF Atlas ICBM, the missile landing in the target area after a flight of 600 miles.

Major General B. A. Schriever again offered a well defined astronautics program at an estimated cost of $16 million in fiscal 1958 and $112 million in 1959. In addition, $10 million in 1958 and $2O million in 1959 would be needed to procure Thor hardware and acquire a Thor space launch complex. Furthermore, said Schriever, although use of all resources qualified to participate in the program was endorsed it was ". . . imperative that the total Air Force effort in the ballistic missile and space field must be managed by one agency and that agency must be the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division. " Schriever also proposed creation of a research and development command committee, chaired by the missile division, to formulate and recommend technical development in space technology. "The committee would meet periodically and make recommendations to the commander, AFBMD, for formulation of the Air Force program." "(Ltr, Maj Gen B. A. Schriever, Qmdr AFBMD, to Lt Gen S. E. Anderson, Cmdr ARDC, 18 Dec 57, subj: Proposal for Future Air Force Ballistic Missile and Space Technology Development.)

Fired from AMR at 1507 hours EST. The main-stage, lift-off, and powered flight were normal. The missile followed the prescribed trajectory. Thrust ended abruptly at 116.87 seconds of flight which resulted in a short-range impact. Failure was again attributed to turbo-pump malfunction. The long-range mission. was not accomplished; however, other primary and secondary missions were successfully accomplished. The abrupt shutdown of the power plant resulted in a range of approximately 149 nm and an altitude of approximately 50 nm.

The eighth Thor flight test missile, the fourth success, completed the first fully-guided flight using an all-inertial guidance and control system. A Thor missile, the eighth tested and the fourth successfully, completed the first fully-guided Thor IRBM flight using an all-inertial guidance system.

An appraisal of Air Research and Development Command research and engineering resources revealed that the command was well prepared to undertake immediate development of a manned space program. The ballistic missile division possessed the resources to embark on vehicle development and command headquarters was ready with a " . . . Fairly comprehensive program laid out in support of the manned aspects of space flight. " In specific terms this involved support from the School of Aviation Medicine, the Aeromedical Laboratory at Wright Air Development Center (WADC), and the Aeromedical Field Laboratory at AFMDC. (Memo, Col L. D. Ely, to Col C. H. Terhune, 30 Dec 57, subj: Telephone Call from General Flickinger and Visit of Colonel Karstens, School of Aviation Medicine.)

USAF Air Research and Development Command completed a 15 year plan for astronautics research and technical development. From this effort was distilled a five year astronautics program which, on this date, was presented to Air Force headquarters. (Ltr, Brig Gen M. C. Demler, D/Cmdr, R&D, Hq ARDC, to Cmdr AFBMD, 30 Dec 57, no subject.)

The astronautics program "package" was under review by Air Force headquarters. Some additional data from AFBMD was requested - cost information, amount of money needed to perform specific tasks and the desirable priority to be assigned each task. (MFR, Brig Gen 0.J. Ritland, V/Cmdr, AFBMD, 31 Dec 57, subj:. Telephone Call from Col Nunziato.)